TA-NEHESY: LAND OF THE NUBIANS
- Heru
- Jan 10
- 32 min read
Updated: Apr 12
The Kingdom of Kerma
The Kingdom of Kerma was an ancient civilization that existed between 2500 BC and 1500 BC, with its capital at the city of Kerma. It was located in the heart of Sudanese Nubia (indigenously known as Ta-Nehesy). Its inhabitants were renowned for being talented warriors and archers. The major occupations of the kingdom included trade, tending livestock, hunting, and fishing. The Kingdom of Kerma existed in three distinct phases – Ancient / Early Kerma (around 2500 BC – 2050 BC), Middle Kerma (around 2050 BC – 1750 BC) and Classic Kerma (around 1750 BC – 1500 BC).
Kerma is known among archaeologists for the unique architecture of its metropolis, which reflects an exceptionally high degree of urban organization. The city had its own expanded harbour quarter facing the Nile, thick fortification walls and bastions, royal residence and cemeteries, religious buildings, storehouses, and bakeries. Moreover, the archaeology of the city indicated that the political structure of the kingdom was more complex than the monocratic political system of ancient Egypt. The archaeology of the cemeteries indicates that magnificent and pompous burials weren’t just reserved for the ruling class, but was made available to all elites, merchants, and anyone with the finances to bear its costs.
Among the monumental works believed to have been built during this time is called the Deffufa. The word ‘deffufa’ is either derived from the Nubian term for a mud-brick building or from the Arabic word ‘daffa’, meaning ‘mass’ or ‘pile’. There are three known deffufas, i.e. the western deffufa, the eastern deffufa, and a third lesser-known deffufa. The Kingdom of Kerma had a very advantageous position when it came to trade in Central Africa. They were situated at the heart of the trade route from western to eastern Africa, and also were the primary controllers of the trade route from central Africa to the Mediterranean. This meant that they were able to exact heavy taxes and tolls from all trade across these routes. This advantageous position in trade is a direct cause for the wealth of the Kerma.
Classic Kerma was the golden age of the kingdom. It was during this period that its rulers successfully took control of Egyptian fortresses and gold mines in the Second cataract. The kingdom kept on attacking and capturing Egyptian territories until around 1500 BC Thutmose I attacked Kerma itself and annexed the kingdom into the Egyptian Empire. The Nubian name for Kerma is Doki which means Red Hill. The city of Kerma itself has been inhabited for 9,500 years. Kerma was ruled by a mixture of a lineage-based elite and priests. The cultural ties between Kerma and Kemet is similar to two regional states within one people.
The Kingdom of Kerma, was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region. This region had been inhabited from as far back as 5,000 BC, mainly by small fishing villages and trade centers. There is archaeological evidence of a unified culture and kingdom emerging from a conglomeration of these small villages and the proto-Kerma (pre-dynastic) A-Group Culture of 3,800-3,100 BC. This culture and its kingdom was known as the Naqada kingdom. Around the turn of the proto-dynastic period, Naqada, in its bid to conquer and unify the whole Nile valley, seems to have conquered Nubia. This created a unified kingdom surrounding the area of Nubia. After the fall of the Naqada kingdom in 2700 BC, the Kerma culture took over the area of Nubia, with Kermites spreading out from the city of Kerma. Eventually this culture was the dominant one in the area, and led to the creation of the The Kingdom of Kerma around 2500 BC with the entirety of the area of Nubia under their control.
In the Kingdom of Kerma’s most prosperous phase, from about 1700–1500 BCE, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Sai and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Kemet. This Kingdom covered wide swathes of the great Nile river, covering all of Kush and Kemet, barring the areas around the city of Waset, where the Kemetic Kings still held power. The Kermite Empire was divided into provinces run by a pesto (governor). The pesto had subordinates who served specialized functions. Nubian queens were co-rulers with pharaohs. In some cases, they ruled alone.
Nubia was known as the land of the bow. Kermite soldiers were expert archers, often lending their services out to train and educate other kingdoms’ armies as well. Their bows were about six feet in length, usually made with palm fiber stretched across different kinds of wood. The arrows were short, fletched with eagle and goose feather, given steel tips. Often the archers also carried a dedicated quiver with poison tipped arrows. The other Kermite weapons were the spear, pike and the Khopesh sword. While the Kermites were expert archers and bow makers, their melee weapons may have been imported. The Kermite military is also credited with the first use of elephants in active combat in warfare, as earlier elephants were only used for transport. They also trained war elephants for export to Egypt.
During the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1070 BC), The Kingdom of Kush located further south succeeded Kerma and would emerge as the dominate force within Ta-Nehesy. The Kushites would consolidate their power around the fourth cataract over the centuries compete with Kemet over influence and dominance within the Nile Valley. The fall of Kerma would usher in a golden age for both Kemet and Kush when the Kushite Kings of Napata established the 25th Kushite Dynasty that lasted for about one hundred years beginning in the middle of the 8th century BCE.
The Kingdom of Kerma: A Proper Introduction
By Malcolm Kwadwo Kwarte Quartey
Often misunderstood, and even more often overlooked, Kush was a major centre of power in the ancient world. Its deserts and its armies formed the southern frontier of many classical civilizations. Its gold and ivory were prized throughout the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Its trade routes connected Africa to the rest of the world and its mercenaries served as far as Greece. Its rulers, many of them powerful queens, known as Kandakes, ruled in the style of the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom. City builders, administrators, craftsmen and artists, writers and musicians, ironworkers and goldsmiths, priests, warriors, farmers, cattle herders and horse breeders. Builders of pyramids. The bowmen of Nubia. Who were these Kushites? What is their story?
Comprehensive and richly illustrated introductions to Kushite history are hard to come by. Therefore I will attempt to provide you with a thorough analysis of Kushite history, outlining their origin and environment, culture and religion, architecture, economy and military. I will also be contextualizing them in the broader African, Mediterranean and Middle Eastern world of Antiquity, including their trade-relations as well as the prolonged wars they waged against several other heavyweights of their time. Because of a lack of credible and historically accurate representations of these people in popular culture, I have spent considerable time gathering a rich collection of primary sources, accurate and relevant images focused on important archaeological sites, reliefs, artefacts and historical reconstructions of houses, monuments, cities, and the people of Kush, as well as contemporary written histories. If any attempt is made to represent “The Kingdom of Kush” in any kind of media format, the histories and images provided in this introduction can provide the backdrop for literature, or the backbone for graphic art or the models of buildings, the environment and the people of Kush.
Identifying Kush:
Kushites are known and referred to by a
number of names, depending on the specific time-period or source being discussed, easily confusing casual readers. The following terms are (sometimes erroneously) used interchangeably: “Kush”, "Cush" or “The Kingdom of Kush”, "The Kingdom of Kerma", "The Kingdom of Napata" or "Napatans", “The Napatan Empire” or the "25th Dynasty", “Meroites”, “The Meroitic
Kingdom”, or more commonly, but less precisely, “Nubia”, or “the Nubians”.
Egypt’s fearsome southern neighbor. This is Herodotus’ Aethiopia, but must not be confused with the modern day country of Ethiopia, which lies to the south of ancient Kush. Neither should they be confused with the “Kushans” of Bactria and India. The Kingdom of Kush was centred on the Southern Nile Valley in modern day Sudan.
More specifically Upper and Lower Nubia (including a part of southern Egypt), the Bayuda desert and the Butana steppe, a vast, semi-arid, seasonal savannah, flanked by the Nile and the Blue Nile to the West, and the Atbarah River to the East. In the Butana people were able to take advantage of seasonal rainfalls to engage in large-scale agro-pastoralism. Mainly cattle herding and the cultivation of cereals. Likewise, the fertile banks of the Nile, with its annual inundation, provided rich soils for the cultivation of barley, wheat, sorghum and millet, along with cash crops like cotton and dates. In 450 B.C. Herodotus correctly identified one of the capital cities as Meroë, an ancient site that was used for royal burials as early as 890 B.C. Situated between the 5th and the 6th cataracts on the Nile, Herodotus called it a “great city... said to be the capital of the other Ethiopians”.
An important note, is that Kushite and Egyptian history, culture, religion, politics and to some degree even language and ethnicity are so tightly interwoven, that Kushite history cannot be understood without that of Egypt, as can Egyptian history not be understood without that of Kush. Therefore there will be frequent mention of Egypt. In the past, this Kushite-Egyptian relationship has often been described as one of master and servant, relegating Kush to a backwater civilization, even riding on the coattails of Egypt. This sentiment is actively being challenged by modern academia and ongoing excavations and fresh discoveries are shedding new light on these complicated early chapters of human history. Egypt and Kush were two components of the interrelated, yet regionally distinct Nile Valley Civilizations and the symbiotic nature of the Kushite-Egyptian relationship will become apparent when examining both histories side by side.
Terminologies:
To the ancient Kushites and Egyptians alike, the entire world was centred around the ebb and flow of the life bringing Nile River. They saw the water flow from a higher place (the headwaters of the Nile in the Ethiopian highlands and Central Africa), to a lower place, namely Northern Egypt, the Delta and eventually the Mediterranean sea. Thus, they considered southern lands "upper" (higher elevation), and northern lands "lower" (lower elevation). As a result, the traditional partitions of the Nile Valley are as follows (north to south): Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, Lower Nubia, Upper Nubia.
The use of the term "Nubia" only becomes widespread after the fall of Kush, and is associated with the rise of the Noba (Nobatae/Noubades/Nobatia). Nonetheless, "Nubia" is often used as a geographical designation for the lands south of Egypt. As such, for the duration of this article, "Nubia" will be used exclusively as a geographical term, referring to the areas from Aswan and the 1st cataract in South Egypt, to the 6th cataract in Central Sudan, divided into Lower Nubia (North) from the first to the second cataract, and Upper Nubia (South), from the second to the 6th cataract. It is important to note that ancient Kush stretched hundreds of kilometers further south of 6th cataract, beyond the traditional confines of Nubia.
Likewise, the term "Ethiopia" (from The Greek Αἰθιοπία/Aethiopia, Αἰθιοπ- which roughly translates as "burnt face" and directly refers to black people in general), was the primary term used by Greeks in Antiquity to refer to Kush (and in later times more broadly includes all of Africa south of Egypt). In these writings, "Ethiopia" and its derivatives will refer to ancient Kush, and not the modern day country of Ethiopia, unless explicitly mentioned.
Other, Egyptian names for the region include Ta-Nehesy (land of the riverine Nubians) which was a term also used by Kushites, and Ta-Seti (land of the bow), although both of these terms seem to refer to the northern areas of Nubia. Ta-Seti was later used as the name for the southernmost nome of Egypt (one of 42) bordering Nubia. Kushites themselves referred to these areas as "pdt psdt" (The Nine Bows).
The term "Kush", is a term that was used by the Kushites themselves, evidenced by names like Kashta (k3š-t3, "from the land of Kush") , as well as being used by the Egyptians (k3š), Assyrian (Kuš, Kusaya, "Kushite"), Old Persian (Kuša), Ancient Hebrew (כּוּשׁ, Kūš, also Cush, Cushi/Kushi, Cushim) and Aksumite (Kasu). Therefore, "Kush" is generally used as the academic standard, referring to the Middle Nile Valley State south of Ancient Egypt, from c. 2500 BC to 350 AD., and will be the preferred term in these writings as well.
The History of Ta-Nehesy:
Prior to Kush academics refer to the civilization as: Old Nubia (c. 3800 BC - c. 3100 BC)
Kerma Period (c. 2500 BC - c. 1504 BC)
New Kingdom Egyptian Period (c. 1504 BC - c. 1077 BC)
Napatan Period (c. 795 BC - c. 590/270 BC)
Meroitic Period (c. 590/270 BC - c. 330 AD)
There is some debate as to whether the Meroitic period begins with the first sack of Napata by Psamtik II (c. 590 BC), or with the definitive move of the royal cemeteries to Meroë and the introduction of Meroitic script (c. 270 BC).
“Oh Great God, swift one. Who comes to him who calls. Watch my sister for me, the woman born in the same womb as me. Do for her as I have done for you. Spontaneous miracles that cannot be denied. Elevate her children and make them prosper, even as you did for me.”
-From Taharqa’s prayer to Amun, at his temple in Kawa
Source: https://wildfiregames.com/forum/topic/21602-the-kingdom-of-kush-a-proper-introduction-illustrated/
Kushite Kings of Napata
In the New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC), Kemet subdued Kush and annexed the south into its empire (which also included the Levant). The Kushites would later liberate Kemet from foreign rule, assume power over the nation and establish the 25th Dynasty which lasted for about one hundred years beginning in the middle of the 8th century BC. Though the Kushites would lose their Kemetic holding by the middle of the 7th century, the Kingdom of Kush would last for nearly another millennium till its final dissolution in the 4th century CE.
Kemet and Kush shared the Hapi (Nile) River and a common border allowed for thousands of years of interaction between the two nations. Kushites and Kemites engaged in trade, intermarriage, diplomacy, and conflict resulting in a dynamic landscape of social and political interconnections and millennia of bidirectional migration.
Consequently, people of Nubian origin could be found at every tier of Kemetic society—including the office of the Nwst Bity (Pharaoh). Kushite soldiers, for instance, were such an integral part of the Kemetic army since the earliest times that Egyptologist Bruce Williams remarked “they played a role in just about every struggle or military force whose composition is recorded, textually or visually.” The Meday operated as the police force and administrators within Kemet and over the Millenia Kemet and Kush formed several coalitions to fend off invading armies. On several occasions Kush came to the defense of Kemet to keep their shared culture and spiritual practices intact when they were threatened by foreign powers.
Two of the most well documented instances of a Kemite/Kushite coalition happened during the 25th Dynasty when Kushite Kings came to the aid of Upper Kemet to fight off an invading army which came from Libya. luput II was a Meshwesh King from Libya and founder of the 24th Dynasty. The 24th Dynasty of Kemet was a regime of Meshwesh Libyan Kings, who ruled between 880 and 734 BC. Iuput II was one of Kemet's rulers of Libyan origin who was forced to submit to the Kushite ruler King Piye when Piye came to the defense of Kemet around 728 BC. On this unusually large faience plaque, perhaps from a shrine, his facial features, proportions, and attire closely resemble those on monuments of Piye in Kush and of Piye's successor Kushite kings in Kemet.
King Piye Kushite King of Napata, 25th Dynasty of Kemet
Piankhi, also known as King Piye was an ancient Kushite king and founder of the 25th Dynasty of Kemet, who ruled from his capital of Napata in Kush from 744–714 BC. The Kushite Kings of Napata emerged from the lineage of the mighty Kings Kerma and would go on to usher in a golden age of artistic and religious expression, marked by impressive architectural achievements, monumental pyramids, and a rich tapestry of cultural practices, and old kingdom forms of governance. Located within Nubia, indigenously known as Ta-Nehesi, “Land of the Nubians”, near Mount Gebel Barkal, between the third and fourth cataracts, King Piye would march north with his army defeating the petty delta kingdoms of the 23rd and 24th dynasty and once again unite the Kingdom of Kemet.
Kushites usher in an Nile Valley Renaissance, Joan Fletcher, Egyptologist: https://www.youtube.com/shorts/BlseGoYC7RI
The 23rd and 24th Dynasty of Kemet was a regime of Meshwesh Libyan Kings, who ruled between 880 and 734 BC. In 728 BCE. When Tefnakht, a King of Sais of Libyan descent, created an alliance of Delta rulers in a coup attempt against the Pharaonic Kings of Upper Kemet, Piye would align the Kingdom of Kush with the Pharaonic Kingdom and the priesthood of Amun located in the city of Waset. luput II was a Meshwesh Chieftain from Libya and founder of the 24th Dynasty. Iuput was an ally of Tefnakht and together they resisted the military campaign by King Piye. Iuput II ruled during a chaotic time of the third Intermediate Period when several kings controlled Lower Kemet, including Osorkon IV at Bubastis and prince Tefnakht at Sais.
Relief of the Libyan King Iuput II, Egypt, 754-720 or 715 BCE, 24th Dynasty, Third Intermediate Period, #59.17, Brooklyn, Museum, Source: https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3669
During this chaotic time period, the Libyan kings had ruled for nearly a century, during which they usurped Kemetic culture and tradition while robbing the royal tombs and coffers to enrich themselves and gain power over the Pharaonic Kingdom. It was during this turmoil that the Kushite kings, rising from their own prosperous kingdom to the south, intervened to preserve Nile valley culture and traditions. They sought to restore the dignity and heritage of Kemet, reclaiming its throne and reestablishing the rightful order. Under the leadership of King Piye, the Kushites united the fractured lands, revitalizing temples and reinstating traditional practices, ultimately ushering in a renaissance that honored both Kemetic and Kushite legacies.
The cult of the Nubio-Kemetic Netcher (god) Amun was strongly entrenched among the Kushites, and a threat by the Delta rulers to Amun’s homeland in Upper Kemet provoked Piye to take action. Following a ritual visit to Waset (Thebes), Piye’s forces met the Libyans’ river fleet and defeated them in battle. He then vanquished a land army near Heracleopolis, in Middle Kemet, and advanced to take Hermopolis, another stronghold of the Libyans, and Memphis, Kemet’s ancient capital. Piye received the submission of several Middle Kingdom monarchs and then marched on the delta, where more local rulers surrendered. Finally, Tefnakhte and Iuput sent a message of submission, and Piye sent an emissary to obtain their oath of fealty. King Piye permitted Iuput II to remain in power as a local governor of Leontopolis according to his Victory Stela from Jebel Barkal.
After some final submissions by holdouts, Piye sailed home to Mount Barkal with the spoils of his venture. He remained in his capital for the remainder of his reign. The great stela recounting his deeds was found there, and is dated in the 21st year of his reign. The reunited Kemetic empire under the Kushite Kings of the 25th Dynasty was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom began, and uniting the country both Upper and Lower Kemet was no small feat. Like the great unifiers that came before him, King Piye ushered in a golden age. There was a renaissance in arts, architecture and religion; all of which were restored to their Old Kingdom forms. The Nubian Pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Hapi (Nile) Valley including at Memphis and Waset (Karnak). They built more pyramids than any other dynasty; approximately 220 pyramids located in the northern Sudanese desert.
His successful campaign was recorded on his Victory stela. According to historians, his brother Shabaka founded the 25th dynasty, but Piye laid the foundations.
The following is a portion of a Hymn to Amun-Ra which is preserved on a papyrus in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. This is one of many such hymns sung in the Kemetic temples in honor of the great Netcher (god) of Kush and Kemet.
A Hymn to Amun-Ra
the Bull, dweller in Anu, chief of all the gods, the beneficent god, beloved one,
giving the warmth of life to all beautiful cattle.
Homage to thee, Amun-Ra , Lord of the throne of Kemet.
Master of the Temple of Karnak.
Kamutef (bull of his mother) at the head of his fields.
The long-strider, Master of the Land of the South.
Lord of the Matchau (Nubians), Governor of Punt,
King of heaven, first-born son of earth,
Lord of all things that are, establisher of all things
One in his actions, as with the gods,
Beneficent Bull of the Company of the Gods (Nine Gods),
Chief of all the gods,
Lord of Truth, father of the gods,
maker of men, creator of all animals,
Lord of things that are, creator of the staff of life,
Maker of the herbage that sustaineth the life of cattle.
Power made by Ptah, Beautiful child of love.
The gods ascribe praises to him. Maker of things celestial and things terrestrial,
he illumineth Kemet, Traverser of the celestial heights in peace. King of the South, King of the North, Ra, whose word is truth, Chief of Kemet. Mighty in power, lord of awe-inspiring terror, Chief, creator of everything on earth, Whose dispensations are greater than those of every other god. The gods rejoice in his beautiful acts. They acclaim him in the Great House (the sky). They crown him with crowns in the House of Fire. They love the odor of him, when he cometh from Punt. Prince of the dew, he traverseth the lands of the Nubians. Beautiful of face, [he] cometh from the Land of the God.
In 716 BC Piankhi died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in a Kemetic style pyramid tomb at El-Kurru, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized by the Nubians of the Napatan period. Piye was succeeded by his brother Shabaka (716–702 BC) who reconquered Libyan forces in Kemet and took full pharaonic titles, establishing himself as the ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of the Nubio-Kemetic Empire.
KING TAHARQA, 25TH DYNASTY
Taharqa, meaning “Young Warrior”, was a ruler of the Kushite Empire (Sudan) and fourth King of the 25th Dynasty of Kemet (Egypt) and reigned from 690–664 BC. His crown as Nwst Bity (Pharaoh) bore two snakes to show that he was the king of both lands, Kemet and Kush. The military campaigns of Piye and Shabaka before him led to both lands flourishing and under his rule the two lands enjoyed a brief time of peace and prosperity. During this time of wealth, he restored existing temples, built new ones, and constructed the largest pyramid in the Napatan region. His additions to the Temple of Waset (Karnak), the new temple at Kawa, and the temple at Jebel Barkal were particularly impressive.
Taharqa succeeded his cousin Shebitku on the throne and lived during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah, at a time when the Assyrians, under King Sennacherib, laid siege to Jerusalem. Early in his reign, Taharqa supported Judea's resistance against King Sennacherib of Assyria and through the military might of his Kemite-Kushite coalition, rescued Jerusalem from sure destruction. He was said to be about twenty years old when he marched out to the Holy Land to engage the Assyrian army. It would seem that he was not yet king when he saved Jerusalem from Assyrian annihilation. This difference in dates may be explained by the suggestion that the “title of king in the Biblical text refers to his future royal title, when at the time of this account he was likely only a military commander.”
In 701 BC, King Hezekiah of Judah (modern-day Israel) paid tribute to King Sennacherib of Assyria after threats of invasion. Needing a buffer between Assyria and Kemet, the Kushite King Shabaka encouraged Judah to resist becoming a vassal state to the Assyrians and promised to defend the small Jewish state. Assyria responded by sending an army to reassert its dominance over Judah. Shabaka then sent 20-year-old Taharqa to intercept the Assyrian army that besieged Jerusalem after Sennacherib threatened to annihilate the rebellious Judah. Taharqa’s combined Kushite-Kemite army defeated the Assyrians at the Battle of Eltekeh, freeing Judah and the Levant from Assyrian hegemony. The Assyrians retreated from Judah after receiving one final tribute payment
from King Hezekiah. Assyrians would regroup and in 671, Taharqa’s army was defeated by Sennacherib’s son Esarhaddon, who moved into Lower Kemet and captured its capital of Memphis. Taharqa fled south to Upper Kemet to regroup and take refuge with his Wasetian allies (City of Thebes). Esarhaddon, installed Psamtik I as puppet ruler and set up a new Assyrian administration, entrusting the government and collection of tribute to the native chiefs in the Delta. Taharqa would return to crush the remainder of the Assyrian garrisons.
But following Esarhaddon’s retreat, Psamtik formed alliances with King Gyges of Lydia, who sent him mercenaries from Caria and ancient Greece which he used to weaken the last of the Kushite-Kemite coalition and assume rule over the nation. Taharqa resisted up until around 664 BC when he was overcome by Esarhaddon’s son Ashurbanipal, after which he fled with his armies further south to the Kushite citystate of Napata (Sudan), where he later died and was buried at the pyramid complex at Nuri. He was then succeeded by Tantamani.
Kushites (Cushites) in the Bible:
The Bible says in 2 Kings 19:9 that King Sennacherib received news that “Tirhaka”, the King of Cush, was marching out against him. Both the Bible and non biblical records show that the Assyrian army withdrew because of this and Jerusalem was saved from destruction. It was an important triumph in both Hebrew and world history because Judaism, a fledgling religion during this time, was protected and allowed to evolve as a result of this Kushite victory.
Tirhaka, Tarkakah, also Tarakos, Tearkos, Tharsikes and Tarku are some of the variations of this Nubian ruler’s name, whose existence has been confirmed by accounts from other ancient historians such as Herodotus, Manetho, Strabo, and Josephus. The age of the classical Hebrew prophets coincided with the rise of the 25th Dynasty of Kemet, and thus the “Egypt” of much prophetic literature was a polity under the dominion of Kushite Pharaohs. Taharqa, the most notable Kushite Pharaoh, is mentioned in 2 Kings 19:9 as marching his army into Judah in 701 BCE in defense of King Hezekiah who seemed powerless before the invading Assyrians. According to 2 Kings 19:35, the Assyrians were routed by the angel of Yahweh. However, most scholars agree that the real hero in the story is the Kushite army whose military success against the Assyrians ensured the preservation of both Jerusalem and Hezekiah’s throne.
However, this is followed from the middle of the 9th century by fragmentations of the state, accompanied on occasion by civil war. This situation only ended in the middle of the 8th century by a progressive takeover of Egypt by the kings of Nubia, who created a united Egyptian-Nubian kingdom (the 25th Dynasty), which oversaw economic and political recovery. This, however, was ended in 663 BC by Assyrian invasions, resulting in the installation of a new northern Egyptian dynasty (26th), marking the end of the Third Intermediate Period.
Indeed, iconographic, archaeological, and textual evidence indicate that the Kushite-Kemite coalition of soldiers were defending important Judean towns like Lachish (also mentioned in 2 Kings 19:8) at this critical period. In fact, Hezekiah becomes a vassal of the Kushite Dynasty, potentially subject to all the terms of vassalage. Following this vein, Kushites are characterized largely as a militaristic people in the Hebrew Bible. Most references to Kush occur in the context of military engagement (i.e., 2 Chron 14:9-15; Isaiah 20:3–4; Jeremiah 46:9; Ezekiel 30:4–5; 38:5; Nahum 3:9). Isaiah 18:2, for instance, characterizes the Kushites as a people “feared near and far,” and a “nation mighty and conquering.” This is consistent with Kushite military reputation in ancient Kemet and the ancient Near East in general.
In terms of physical representation, Kemetic iconographic evidence consistently depict Kushites with dark skin pigmentation, and the Greeks refer to the southerners same as they describe the Kemites particularly those from Upper Kemet, from and around the capitol of Waset (Thebes), as Aithiops, or Ethiopians, meaning “burnt of face,” referencing their dark complexions. This is far from exhibiting the kind of antipathy toward blackness we find in the modern context, the physical characteristics of the Kushite evoked no negative responses: ancient peoples like Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks did not subscribe to a racialized view of identity.
Sources:
The Origins of Pharaonic Iconography in Nubia
The Atef crown, historically associated with the god Ausar (Osiris), plays a significant role in ancient Egyptian iconography. This crown is essentially the Hedjet crown of Upper Kemet, adorned with two ostrich feathers on either side, symbolizing truth and justice. The Hedjet has its origins in Upper Kemet and Lower Nubia, with one of its earliest representations found on the Qustul incense burner, dating back to the second half of the fourth millennium BCE and unearthed in Sudan at the Qustul site. This artifact has been linked to the Holy Mountain of Jebel Barkal by Kendall, Timothy, and El-Hassan Ahmed Mohamed, who note its striking pinnacle resembling high felt hats with a knob on top. Professor Christopher Ehret has cited recent work which revealed the Qustul state in Nubia was a site of great antiquity and influence within the framework of Nile Valley civilization. Ehret also wrote that:
“The Qustul elite and ruler in the second half of the fourth millennium participated together with their counterparts in the communities of the Naqada culture of southern Kemet in creating the emerging culture and paraphernalia of pharaonic culture.”
Ehret, Christopher, The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800, University of California Press, 2023: https://archive.org/details/civilizationsofa0000ehre
While the Hedjat crown is older in terms of its origins and use in the early dynastic period, the Atef crown, while significant, appears later in the historical timeline as part of the evolving royal symbolism associated with Ausar and the afterlife. The Qustul incense burner serves as evidence of these complex interactions, indicating that the Qustul elite participated in the cultural developments that would lead to the later prominence of both crowns in Egyptian iconography. Dr. Shomarka Keita, Research Affiliate in the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution, and A. J. Boyce of the Institute of Biological Anthropology and St. John's College Oxford University would echo these sentiments in an article published in 2005 where they state:
“There was some shared iconography in the kingdoms that emerged in Nubia and upper Egypt around 3300 BCE (Williams 1986)...Nubian and upper Egyptian proximity and on some level, shared culture, Nubia’s possible participation in Egyptian state-building, and later partial political absorption in Dynasty I, would have reinforced biological overlap.
Interactions between Nubia and Egypt occurred in the period between 4000 and 3000 BCE.”
S.O.Y. Keita, A. J. Boyce, History in Africa, Volume 32, 2005, p. 239: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/187884
Bruce Beyer Williams, an Egyptgolgist recognized for his expertise in ancient Nubian history and archaeology, comments on the great antiquity of Ta-Seti which predates Dynasty 1, and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by at least 4 centuries. As well as these early examples of pharaonic symbolism discovered at the Qustul burial site:
“Apart from other "firsts" in representation and art, the Qustul incense burner stands out at this writing, not as a provincial imitation of some unknown Egyptian monument but as the first self-evident pharaonic monument from the Nile Valley, the first unequivocal representation of a pharaoh in his person, the first definite linking of the pharaoh's figure with the Horns falcon, palace facade, and boat that later became the sacred bark, the first self-evident representation of an event linked with the royals sacrifice, and the first datable monument-ceremonial object that compares with the slate palettes and maceheads of Egypt."
Dr. Williams noted that, “The wealth was vastly superior to any contemporary tombs in Nubia or Egypt down to the royal cemetery at Abydos; this includes the thousand painted bowls, a hundred stone vessels from the cemetery, twenty-two storage jars in one tomb, and local objects in unusual numbers and quantity.' The pharaonic symbolism that appears, for the first time in the archaeological record here, includes a symbolic reference that predates the Iry-Hor nesu with Horns association at Abydos (who is believed to have ruled before the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt).
The most stunning find is the seal with the name "Ta-Seti" that yields the most staggering implication, regarding the relationship between Nubia and Kemet in prehistory: and here is the significance. As Dr. Christopher Ehret pointed out in The Civilizations of Africa:
"By 3,500 BCE, a cultural world of sacral chiefdoms and petty sacral kingdoms was gradually coming into being in Nubia, and the ideas that undergirded these social formations also took hold in the far south of Kemet. Recent archaeological work shows that this political and cultural outlook then spread from southern Egypt northward into Lower Egypt after perhaps 3300, culminating in the establishment of a unified Egypt around 3,100 BCE. For a while between 3,400 and 3200 BCE, the most powerful of the small states may have been Ta-Seti, actually located in the northern Nubian stretches of the Nile, just south of Kemet. The pictorial documents left by its kings reveal Ta-Seti's claim to having conquered and ruled over Upper Kemet for the time. The kingdom had strong connections both up and down the Nile. Imported items from as far north as the Syria-Palestine region turn up in the grave goods of the rulers.”
The seal with the mention of Ta-Seti dates to around 3300-3250 BCE. This date is significant as it aligns with the timeframe attributed to King Scorpion's reign, marking a critical period in the transition from pre-dynastic to dynastic Kemet. Beyer's findings suggest that the seal connects Ta-Seti with the emergence of a hierarchical society and the beginnings of accountancy, which played a crucial role in the organization of resources and the establishment of early state structures. This dating situated Ta-Seti within a broader context of political and social development in ancient Nubia, providing insight into its influence on subsequent Egyptian civilization and into the social and political structures that existed in Nubia prior to the Gerzean period.
“The Qustul incense burner and Horns of Nekhen incense burner are royal documents and other incense burners with serekhs are comparable with the prehistoric palace facades from Egypt. The Qustul incense burner clearly shows the nesu with Horns about four generations before Iry-Hor, and a series of roughly contemporary seals and sealings from other sites refer to the dynasty by the use of the same unusual form of palace facade. One sealing actually refers to the named Ta-Seti, the name used at this period on the plaque of Hor-Aha from Abydos, the Gebel Sheikh Sulieman inscription, as well as this sealing from Nubia, that connects this particular form of palace facade with the name Ta-Seti”.
Larry Ross, Nubia and Egypt: From Prehistory to the Meroitic Period, Edwin Mellen Press, 2012, p. 73-75: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283504727_Nubia_and_Egypt_10000_BC_to_400_AD_-_From_Prehistory_to_the_Meroitic_Period
It is important to note that these events take place prior to the emergence of what academics today view as the Kemetic identity as noted by Larry Ross on page 53: “Cultural identity and 'nationalism' did not exist, as we understand it in modern terms, at the time.” This early Pharaonic iconography would eventually travel north into Lower Egypt with the absorption of the Delta into the Southern Pharaonic Kingdom and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. It is important to note that at the time of the unification around 3100 BCE Kemet and Nubia had already had centuries of interaction and cultural fusion which culminated into the 1st Dynasty. The Naqada civilization in Upper Egypt ultimately defeated the Ta-Setians of Qustul which was abandoned and absorbed into what is now recognized as the first dynastic monarchy.
“Dynasty I brought the political conquest of the A-Group Nubian kingdom Ta Seti by Egyptian kings (Wilkinson 1999). Lower Nubia seems to have become largely “depopulated,” based on archeological evidence, but this more likely means that Nubians were partially bio-culturally assimilated into southern Egypt.”
S.O.Y. Keita, A. J. Boyce, History in Africa, Volume 32, 2005, p. 239: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/187884
Early African neolithic populations were among the first to settle in the Levant region making ancient Africans the dominant group in regions such as ancient Israel, Palestine and Syria. The flow of culture and influence coincides with the movement of people from as far south as the horn of Africa into Western Asia. "Ehret cited other genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker.
"Ehret cited other genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker “M35 /215” Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant."
Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023). Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE. Princeton University Press. pp. 97, 167: https://www.academia.edu/121820837/Ancient_Africa_a_global_history_to_300_ce_by_Christopher_Ehret_Princeton_and_Oxford_Princeton_University_Press_2023_224_pp_27_95_22_00_hardback_ISBN_9780691244099
Furthermore the remains of early Judean/Hebrew populations were studied and found to cluster closely with Badairans, the Nubian A-Group and other ancient Northeast African populations. The remains were unearthed and believed to be victims from the Siege of Lachish which was the result of Assyrian attacks on Israel and Judea during the 7th century BCE.
"In 2020, Godde analyzed a series of crania which included two Egyptian (predynastic Badarian and Naqada series), a series of A-Group Nubians, and a Bronze Age series from Lachish, Palestine. The two pre-dynastic series had strongest affinities, followed by closeness between the Naqada and the Nubian series. Further, the Nubian A-Group plotted nearer to the Egyptians and the Lachish sample placed more closely to Naqada than Badari. According to Godde the spatial-temporal model applied to the pattern of biological distances explains the more distant relationship of Badari to Lachish than Naqada to Lachish as gene flow will cause populations to become more similar over time. Overall, both Egyptian samples were more similar to the Nubian series than to the Lachish series."
Source: Godde, Kane (2020). "A biological perspective of the relationship between Egypt, Nubia, and the Near East during the Predynastic period". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
These studies suggest a genetic continuity beginning in Africa near the source of the Nile and migrating north into Egypt and the Levant. This migration is supported by the distribution of the E3 haplogroup, which indicates a historical connection between sub-Saharan African populations and those in the Nile Valley and beyond. The E3 haplogroup, particularly its subclades, shows a higher frequency in regions around the Nile and suggests that these genetic lineages were carried northward through ancient migrations, influencing the genetic landscape of Egypt and the Levant over time.
Moreover, the findings imply that various genetic markers are reflective of a complex interplay of local and external influences, where indigenous African populations contributed significantly to the gene pool observed in modern Egyptians and peoples of the Levant [6]. This continuity challenges simplistic narratives of migration and highlights the intricate tapestry of human history in the region
The Atef crown's significance extends beyond Kemetic borders, influencing the artistic expressions and religious motifs of the Levant. Canaanite depictions of local deities wearing the Atef crown illustrate the cultural exchange occurring during the Late Bronze Age. One such figure is described as "not the Egyptian king but rather an ancient Near Eastern depiction of a local deity," highlighting the fusion of styles and motifs during this period. This "Egyptianizing" style permeated the artistic expressions of the Levant, a testament to the extensive cultural interactions of the time.
Archaeological findings at sites like Hazor further underscore the presence of Egyptian influence in the Levant. Numerous Egyptian statues, including one discovered in 2013 with the paws of a sphinx, indicate a complex relationship between the Canaanites and their Egyptian counterparts. The deliberate smashing of these artifacts suggests political tensions or shifts in religious beliefs within the region, marking a significant transition in the cultural landscape of the Levant.
Additionally, Herodotus, the ancient Greek historian, provides valuable insights into the interactions between Egyptians and the peoples of the Levant. He documents the exploits of Egyptians and Kushites in regions like Palestine, noting monuments inscribed with declarations of conquest. His accounts reveal a pronounced sense of Egyptian authority and influence extending beyond their borders, emphasizing the broader implications of Egyptian cultural and political dominance.
In conclusion, the ancient Egyptian influence on the Levant, particularly through the adoption of iconography like the Atef crown, signifies a profound cultural intermingling during the Late Bronze Age. The fusion of artistic styles, alongside physical evidence of Egyptian artifacts in Canaanite sites, illustrates the depth of this influence. These interactions not only shaped the religious and cultural identities of the Levant but also reflected the broader dynamics of power and exchange in the ancient Near East.
Nubians of Punt
The land of Punt, indigenously known as "pwnt" (pronounced Pwenet) also known as the "Land of the Gods" is traditionally believed to be situated in the region surrounding the southern Red Sea, extending inland into parts of modern-day Sudan and reaching areas of the Horn of Africa, including present-day Somalia. Research by R. Herzog indicates that Punt's location extended from the shores of the Red Sea into the eastern Sudan, reinforcing its significance as a trade hub in ancient times.
In the creation story of Inunu, Nun represents the primordial waters of chaos from which all creation arises and is associated with the inundation of the Iteru (Nile River). The "Land of the Horizon-Dwellers" can be interpreted as a metaphorical and geographical representation of the realms that exist beyond the known world, which are often associated with divine order and beginning of creation. This land is depicted as a place of divine presence, where the sun rises and sets, symbolizing rebirth and continuous creation.
The horizon serves as a critical boundary where creation occurs, linking the terrestrial and celestial realms in the fabric of Kemetic belief. Thus, while the Land of Punt is geographically located south of Kemet is so-called sub-saharan Africa, its significance goes beyond mere geography. It represents both a source of wealth and the land of the gods which is intrinsically connected to the source of creation.
The association between the horizon and the realm of the gods is crucial. The Kemetyu viewed the horizon as a sacred space where the earth meets the sky, and this boundary is where the sun (Ra) travels each day. The journey of Ra across the sky is a reflection of the cyclical nature of life, death, and rebirth, which is central to the Inunu creation narrative. This ties back to the idea of the horizon as a place of divine action, where order is established from the chaos of Nun.
The Ethnicity of a faction of the inhabitants of the land of Punt was briefly alluded to in the "Festival of Min" at Medinet Habu. A man who takes part in the Festival recites a hymn to Min and he is referred to as "nHs n pwnt" which translates to “Nehesy of Punt". The term "Nehesy" refers to Nubians, a generic term for the various populations and ethnic groups associated with the lands south of Kemet. The Nehesy played a pivotal role in the creation of the nation as intermediaries and traders, facilitated the exchange of goods and cultural practices, and contributed to the economic and cultural wealth of ancient Kemet. This relationship goes back to pre-dynastic times, long before the unification of Upper and Lower Kemet.
"Interactions between Nubia and Egypt occurred in the period between 4000 and 3000 BCE. There is evidence for sharing of some cultural traits between Sudan and Egypt in the neolithic. Some items of “material” culture were also shared in the phase called Naqada I between the Nubian A- Group and upper Egypt (3900-3650 BCE). There is good evidence for a zone of cultural overlap versus an absolute boundary. Hoffman (1982) noted cattle burials in Hierakonpolis, the most important of predynastic upper Egyptian cities in the later predynastic. This custom might reflect Nubian cultural impact, a common cultural background, or the presence of Nubians. Whatever the case, there was some cultural and economic bases for all levels of social intercourse, as well as geographical proximity. There was some shared iconography in the kingdoms that emerged in Nubia and upper Egypt around 3300 BCE (Williams 1986)...Pg 235...there is evidence that Nubia may have even militarily engaged upper Egypt before Dynasty I, and contributed leadership in the unification of Egypt (Williams 1986)..... Nubian and upper Egyptian proximity and on some level, shared culture, Nubia’s possible participation in Egyptian state-building, and later partial political absorption in Dynasty I, would have reinforced biological overlap. Pg 238-239
Genetics, Egypt, and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/187884
In the Egyptian Autobiography, Punt is also referred to as the “land of the horizon-dwellers". This epithet is a description of the realm of the Neteru (deities of Kemet) as the lands associated with some of the most revered gods within the ancient Kemetic Pantheon such as Amun the God of Gods, Het-Heru (Hathor) the "Lady of Punt", Bes the "Lord of Punt", Min "Lord of the desert lands (Nubia) and ruler of the Bowmen (Nubians), and the triad of Ausar, Auset and Heru. In the brief hymn on the verso, the god Min is equated with Heru, an identification often made in the Middle Kingdom, which we encounter in the text of the Rock Stela of Mentuhotep IV. This inscription associates Punt as the “nest” or Heru alluding to the land of his origin.
(Mentuhotep IV Stela)
His majesty commanded to erect this stela for his father Min, lord of desert lands, at this celestial mountain, “O Venerable one, primeval god, first ranking, foremost of the position in the land of the horizon-dwellers, the palace of the god is endowed with life, sacred nest of Heru in which this god flourishes, within the pure place of his heart's content, set above the deserts, upon the hills of god’s land. He made it as his monument to his father Min of Coptus, lord of desert lands, ruler of Bowmen, that he may bestow numerous jubilees and live like Ra, forever.”
Source: Lichtheim, M. (1973). Ancient Egyptian literature: A book of readings (Vol. 1). The Middle Kingdom. Page 114.
Punt is significant in ancient Kemetic culture as it was viewed as an ancestral homeland, believed to be the origin of much of the culture and tradition of the Kemetyu. Furthermore, it was regarded as a divine realm where the gods emerged and interacted, enriching the mythology of the land.
"There was a great similarity between the Puntites as represented in the Egyptian monuments and the Egyptians themselves, and it is said that the pre-dynastic Egyptians found their way from Punt, passing up the coast of the Red sea and entering Egypt through Wadi Hammamat, thereafter spreading south into Nubia. As the name Punt is always described in the official Egyptian texts without the determinative of a foreign country or land, the ancient Egyptians regarded the people of Punt as being racially connected with themselves."
R. K. Sinha, 1983, Punt & the Puntities are depicted in the Ancient Egyptian Monuments: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139909
Genetic Evidence:
"Ehret cited other genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker “M35 /215” Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant."
Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023). Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE. Princeton University Press. pp. 97, 167: https://www.academia.edu/121820837/Ancient_Africa_a_global_history_to_300_ce_by_Christopher_Ehret_Princeton_and_Oxford_Princeton_University_Press_2023_224_pp_27_95_22_00_hardback_ISBN_9780691244099
This connection to Punt fostered a spiritual and cultural identity for the Kemetyu, as it symbolized the source of divine blessings and resources vital to their civilization.
"Punt was also associated with Egyptian ancestry in that it came to be seen as their ancient homeland and, further, the land where the gods emerged from and consorted with each other."
Source: Professor Joshua J. Mark, 2011, www.worldhistory.org/punt
Trade relations with Punt date back to 2613-2498 BCE with the 4th Dynasty, under Nsut Khufu. A 4th Dynasty relief shows a Puntite with one of Khufu's sons, and in the Fifth Dynasty documents show regular trade between the two countries enriching both. Hatshepsut's inscriptions at Deir El-Bahri claim her divine mother, to be Het-Heru known to the Greeks as Hathor. The Nehesy of Punt were quite similar to the ancient Kemites in form and feature, as seen in the relief of King Parahu and Queen Ati shown on the temple walls at Deir al-Bahri.
"It is the sacred region of Gods Land (Punt). It is my place of distraction. I have made it for myself in order to cleanse my spirit. Along with my mother, Hathor, the Lady of Punt."
- Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Deir El-Bahri
The Land of Horizon Dwellers is best known from inscriptions regarding Queen Hatshepsut's famous expedition in 1493 BCE in the 18th Dynasty of Kemet. This exchange between the two countries brought back living trees to Kemet, marking the first known successful attempt at transplanting foreign fauna. This voyage to Punt is only the most famous, however, and evidence suggests that the Kemites were trading and engaging in cultural fusion with the Land of Punt as early as the reign of the pharaoh Khufu in the Fourth Dynasty of Kemet (2613-2498 BCE) and probably earlier.
"Master of the Land of the South, Lord of the Matchau, Governor of Punt, King of heaven, first-born son of earth, Lord of Truth, father of the gods, They love the essence of him, when he cometh from Punt. Maker of all things celestial & terrestrial, he illumineth Kemet. Prince of the dew, he traverseth the lands of the Nubians. Beautiful of face, he cometh from the Land of the Gods."
- Victory Stele of King Piye, Kushite King of the 25th Dynasty
Greetings, Family!
Over the past few days, I have studied your extensive work on the history of Kerma--Doki. Your research was enriching! I was enlightened about the extent to which Doki extends into Antiquity. Amazing!
It cannot be overstated that this information is essential for our Diasporic Family, as well as, the world. I love Kemet; the world loves Kemet, as we all should. But, once we understand the full magnitude and depth of our history as a whole, we realize Kemet is but a small piece of African history. It is imperative for all to know that Kemet grew out of other Black African nations with intermingling cultures, and beyond Kemet grew other uniquely impressive and powerful nations.